A strong anatomy and physiology answer integrates the structural description of an organ or system with the functional explanation of how that structure performs the homeostatic role assigned to it, and a successful A&P lab report walks the reader from the experimental purpose through the dissection or histology observations and the physiological measurements to a discussion that ties the observations back to the canonical models from Tortora Marieb or Saladin. This hub gathers our anatomy and physiology homework help resources across the integumentary musculoskeletal cardiovascular respiratory lymphatic nervous endocrine digestive urinary and reproductive systems, full cadaver dissection notes and worked histology slide identifications, complete lab report exemplars in the standard scientific report format, and study guides aligned to the Anatomy and Physiology One and Anatomy and Physiology Two sequences taken by pre nursing pre medical pre dental pre physical therapy pre occupational therapy and pre veterinary students at community colleges and universities across the United States and internationally.
How anatomy and physiology students use this hub
Anatomy and physiology is the gateway course for almost every clinical and allied health program in the United States. Pre nursing students take a two semester sequence Anatomy and Physiology One and Anatomy and Physiology Two, often paired with a microbiology course, before entering the Bachelor of Science in Nursing or Associate Degree in Nursing program. Pre medical pre dental and pre veterinary students take the same two semester sequence as part of their pre health prerequisite stack, often supplemented by a separate human anatomy course with cadaver dissection and a separate human physiology course at the upper division level. Pre physical therapy and pre occupational therapy students take the sequence with additional kinesiology and biomechanics coursework. Exercise science and athletic training majors take the sequence with extended coverage of the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems and the integration with exercise physiology. Master of Science in Anatomy and doctoral programs in anatomy or physiology offer advanced coursework in regional anatomy systems physiology and laboratory technique.
Our anatomy and physiology resources are organized around this curriculum with worked study guides for each organ system at both the introductory undergraduate level and the graduate level, full lab reports for the standard A&P One and A&P Two laboratory exercises in the Marieb Wood Smith and the Eric Wise lab manuals, complete histology slide identifications for the major tissue types and the canonical organ histology preparations, dissection notes for the fetal pig the rat the cat and the human cadaver where the curriculum permits cadaver work, and exam preparation banks for the cumulative lecture exams the practical exams and the cumulative final exams that follow the standard course design at most programs. For short turnaround anatomy worksheets, organ system review questions and lab report write ups, we recommend the homework help desk. For Master of Science in Anatomy theses, doctoral dissertations and full physiological research projects, we recommend the dissertation writing service. The nursing pillar covers nursing specific anatomy and physiology applications.
Anatomy and physiology writers on this hub hold at least a Master of Science in Anatomy a Master of Science in Physiology a Master of Science in Biomedical Sciences or a doctoral degree in a biomedical discipline, with twenty seven percent holding a Doctor of Medicine a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine a Doctor of Dental Surgery a Doctor of Physical Therapy or a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Roughly half have served as anatomy laboratory teaching assistants or cadaver lab demonstrators during their graduate training, which directly informs the quality of the dissection notes and the histology slide identifications on this hub.
Cellular foundations, tissues and homeostasis
Cellular foundations content on this hub covers the plasma membrane fluid mosaic model with the phospholipid bilayer the integral and peripheral proteins the cholesterol modulation and the carbohydrate cell surface markers, the membrane transport mechanisms including simple diffusion facilitated diffusion primary active transport secondary active transport vesicular transport endocytosis and exocytosis, the resting membrane potential established by the sodium potassium adenosine triphosphatase pump and the leak channels, the action potential with the depolarization repolarization and hyperpolarization phases, and the cellular metabolism overview from glycolysis through the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain to the production of adenosine triphosphate. Cell division through mitosis and meiosis with the prophase metaphase anaphase telophase and cytokinesis stages is worked through with the canonical errors that lead to nondisjunction and the chromosomal disorders that result.
Tissue level content covers the four primary tissue types epithelial connective muscle and nervous, with the canonical histology slide identifications for simple squamous simple cuboidal simple columnar pseudostratified stratified squamous stratified cuboidal stratified columnar and transitional epithelium, the connective tissue subtypes including loose areolar adipose reticular dense regular dense irregular elastic hyaline cartilage elastic cartilage fibrocartilage bone and blood, the three muscle types skeletal cardiac and smooth with the structural and functional distinctions among them, and the nervous tissue with neurons and the four glial cell types in the central nervous system and the two glial cell types in the peripheral nervous system. Homeostasis content covers the negative feedback loop with the receptor control center and effector components, positive feedback loops with the canonical examples in childbirth and blood clotting, and the integration of homeostatic mechanisms across the autonomic nervous system the endocrine system and the renal system in the maintenance of the internal environment.
Integumentary, skeletal and muscular systems
Integumentary system essays on this hub cover the epidermal layers from the stratum basale through the stratum spinosum the stratum granulosum the stratum lucidum in thick skin and the stratum corneum, the keratinization process with the production of keratinocytes melanocytes Langerhans cells and Merkel cells, the dermal layers with the papillary and reticular regions and the canonical accessory structures including hair follicles sebaceous glands eccrine and apocrine sweat glands and arrector pili muscles, and the hypodermis with its adipose and loose areolar connective tissue. Clinical applications cover the rule of nines for burn assessment, the Lund and Browder chart for pediatric burns, the canonical skin cancer types basal cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma with the ABCDE assessment framework, and the wound healing phases of hemostasis inflammation proliferation and remodeling.
Skeletal system essays cover the axial skeleton with the skull the vertebral column the rib cage and the hyoid bone, the appendicular skeleton with the pectoral girdle the upper limb the pelvic girdle and the lower limb, the bone tissue at the histological level with osteoblasts osteocytes osteoclasts and the lamellar bone with the Haversian system, the bone development through endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification, and the bone remodeling cycle with the activation resorption reversal and formation phases. Joint classification through the structural classification fibrous cartilaginous and synovial and the functional classification synarthrosis amphiarthrosis and diarthrosis is covered with attention to the synovial joint subtypes plane hinge pivot condyloid saddle and ball and socket. Worked dissection notes cover the cat fetal pig and human cadaver bone identification and the joint manipulation laboratory exercises for the major synovial joints.
Muscular system essays on this hub cover skeletal muscle structure from the muscle organ through the fascicle the muscle fiber the myofibril the sarcomere and the thick and thin filaments, the sliding filament theory of contraction with the cross bridge cycle and the role of calcium and adenosine triphosphate, the neuromuscular junction with the motor end plate the acetylcholine release the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors and the muscle fiber action potential, and the excitation contraction coupling sequence with the transverse tubule and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Skeletal muscle physiology covers the motor unit recruitment principle the size principle the muscle twitch and the summation and tetanus phenomena, the muscle fiber types slow oxidative fast oxidative glycolytic and fast glycolytic, and the energy systems supporting muscle contraction including the phosphagen system the glycolytic system and the oxidative system. The origin insertion action and innervation of every named skeletal muscle is presented in tabular form for muscle identification practical exam preparation. Cardiac and smooth muscle physiology with the relevant structural and functional distinctions are covered in the cardiovascular and digestive system sections.
Cardiovascular, respiratory and lymphatic systems
Cardiovascular system essays on this hub cover heart anatomy with the four chambers the four valves the great vessels the conduction system with the sinoatrial node the atrioventricular node the bundle of His the bundle branches and the Purkinje fibers and the coronary circulation with the right coronary the left main the left anterior descending and the circumflex arteries. Cardiac physiology covers the cardiac cycle with the ventricular filling the isovolumetric contraction the ventricular ejection and the isovolumetric relaxation phases, the pressure volume loop and its modifications with preload afterload and contractility changes, the Frank Starling mechanism, the determinants of cardiac output, and the electrocardiogram interpretation with the P wave the QRS complex the T wave and the standard arrhythmia patterns including atrial fibrillation atrial flutter ventricular tachycardia ventricular fibrillation and the atrioventricular blocks first degree second degree Mobitz One and Mobitz Two and third degree.
Vascular system essays cover the arterial venous and capillary structure with attention to the tunica intima media and externa, the canonical arterial and venous trees of the systemic and pulmonary circulations, the microcirculation with the precapillary sphincter the metarteriole and the true capillary bed, the Starling forces governing fluid exchange across the capillary wall, and the lymphatic system with the lymphatic capillary the lymphatic vessel the lymph node the lymphatic trunk and the right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct. Blood physiology covers the formed elements with erythrocytes leukocytes and platelets, the canonical hematocrit and hemoglobin reference ranges, the coagulation cascade with the intrinsic extrinsic and common pathways, and the ABO and Rhesus blood group systems with their transfusion compatibility implications.
Respiratory system essays cover the upper respiratory tract anatomy with the nasal cavity pharynx and larynx, the lower respiratory tract anatomy with the trachea bronchi bronchioles and alveoli, the gas exchange surface at the respiratory membrane with the type one and type two alveolar cells and the alveolar macrophage, and the respiratory physiology covering pulmonary ventilation gas exchange gas transport and central and peripheral chemoreceptor regulation. Pulmonary mechanics with compliance elastance and resistance, the work of breathing, the lung volumes and capacities measured by spirometry, the canonical obstructive and restrictive pulmonary disease patterns, the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve and the Bohr and Haldane effects, and the carbon dioxide transport mechanisms in plasma as bicarbonate as carbamino compounds and dissolved are worked through with clinical correlation. Acid base physiology with the Henderson Hasselbalch equation the respiratory and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis primary disorders and the renal and respiratory compensation patterns is covered in detail because pre nursing students are universally examined on it.
Nervous system, endocrine system and special senses
Nervous system essays on this hub cover the central nervous system with the cerebrum cerebellum brainstem and spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system with the cranial nerves the spinal nerves the dorsal root ganglia and the autonomic ganglia, and the autonomic nervous system with the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions and their respective preganglionic and postganglionic neurons their neurotransmitters and their target organ effects. Cerebral cortex anatomy with the four lobes the canonical primary motor primary somatosensory primary visual and primary auditory areas the language areas of Broca and Wernicke and the prefrontal association cortex is covered with attention to the canonical lesion deficit correlations. The basal ganglia with the caudate the putamen the globus pallidus the subthalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra the cerebellum with its three functional divisions and the diencephalon with the thalamus and hypothalamus are covered at the level required for both A&P One and A&P Two examinations.
The neuron at the cellular level is covered with the resting membrane potential the action potential the synaptic transmission with the neurotransmitter release receptor binding and reuptake or enzymatic breakdown, and the canonical neurotransmitter systems including the cholinergic the noradrenergic the dopaminergic the serotonergic the glutamatergic the gamma aminobutyric acid system and the glycinergic system. Spinal cord anatomy and reflexes with the monosynaptic stretch reflex the polysynaptic withdrawal reflex and the crossed extensor reflex are worked through with the canonical pathway diagrams. The ascending sensory pathways including the dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway and the spinothalamic tract and the descending motor pathways including the corticospinal tract and the corticobulbar tract are presented with the decussation points and the canonical lesion deficit correlations.
Endocrine system essays cover the hypothalamic pituitary axis with the anterior pituitary hormones thyroid stimulating hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone follicle stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone growth hormone and prolactin and their respective releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary hormones antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine and thyroxine and the canonical hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism presentations, the parathyroid hormone and the calcium homeostasis loop with calcitonin and active vitamin D, the adrenal cortex hormones cortisol aldosterone and the adrenal androgens and the adrenal medulla catecholamines, the pancreatic hormones insulin glucagon and somatostatin and the diabetes mellitus type one and type two distinction, and the gonadal hormones testosterone estrogen and progesterone with their canonical reproductive system effects. Special senses content covers the visual pathway with the retina the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex, the auditory pathway with the cochlea the cochlear nucleus the superior olive the inferior colliculus the medial geniculate nucleus and the primary auditory cortex, the vestibular system with the semicircular canals and the utricle and saccule, and the gustatory and olfactory systems.
Digestive, urinary and reproductive systems
Digestive system essays on this hub cover the gross anatomy of the alimentary canal from the oral cavity through the pharynx the esophagus the stomach the small intestine with the duodenum jejunum and ileum the large intestine with the cecum ascending transverse descending and sigmoid colon the rectum and the anal canal, the accessory digestive organs the salivary glands the liver the gallbladder and the pancreas, and the histology of each region with attention to the canonical mucosa submucosa muscularis externa and serosa or adventitia organization. Digestive physiology covers the mechanical digestion through mastication peristalsis and segmentation, the chemical digestion with the salivary amylase the gastric pepsin and gastric lipase the pancreatic amylase pancreatic lipase trypsin chymotrypsin and elastase the bile salts and the brush border enzymes, the absorption of carbohydrates amino acids fatty acids and monoglycerides and the fat soluble and water soluble vitamins, and the regulation of digestive function through the enteric nervous system the autonomic nervous system and the gastrointestinal hormones gastrin secretin cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide.
Urinary system essays cover the kidney anatomy with the renal cortex the renal medulla with the renal pyramids the renal pelvis the calyces and the renal vasculature with the renal artery the segmental interlobar arcuate and interlobular arteries and the corresponding venous drainage. The nephron as the functional unit is covered with the renal corpuscle including the glomerulus and the Bowman capsule, the proximal convoluted tubule the loop of Henle with its descending and ascending limbs the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct, and the juxtaglomerular apparatus with the macula densa the granular cells and the extraglomerular mesangial cells. Renal physiology covers glomerular filtration with the glomerular filtration rate and its regulation through the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback, tubular reabsorption and secretion with the canonical sodium potassium chloride bicarbonate calcium and phosphate handling, the countercurrent multiplier and exchanger systems that establish and maintain the medullary osmotic gradient, the renin angiotensin aldosterone system, and the antidiuretic hormone control of water reabsorption. Acid base balance through bicarbonate reabsorption and ammonia excretion is integrated with the respiratory acid base content from the respiratory section. Urine formation electrolyte balance and the canonical electrolyte disorders hyponatremia hypernatremia hypokalemia hyperkalemia hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia are worked through with their characteristic clinical presentations.
Reproductive system essays cover the male reproductive anatomy with the testes the epididymis the ductus deferens the seminal vesicles the prostate gland the bulbourethral glands and the penis with the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum, the female reproductive anatomy with the ovaries the fallopian tubes the uterus the cervix the vagina and the external genitalia, and the breast anatomy. Reproductive physiology covers spermatogenesis with the canonical stages from spermatogonium through primary spermatocyte secondary spermatocyte spermatid and mature sperm, oogenesis with the canonical stages from oogonium through primary oocyte secondary oocyte and mature ovum and the timing of meiotic arrest and resumption, the menstrual cycle with the follicular ovulatory and luteal phases and the corresponding endometrial proliferative secretory and menstrual phases, the hormonal regulation through the hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone the pituitary follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone and the gonadal estrogen progesterone and testosterone, fertilization implantation and embryonic and fetal development through the major developmental milestones, and pregnancy and parturition with the canonical hormonal changes and the positive feedback loop of oxytocin during labor.
Anatomy and physiology lab, dissection and histology
The anatomy and physiology laboratory component dominates the practical exam grade in most programs. Our laboratory resources cover full lab report exemplars for the standard exercises in the Marieb Wood Smith Lab Manual the Eric Wise Hands On Labs and the Patton lab manuals, with each report following the scientific report format with title abstract introduction methods results discussion and references. Lab reports cover the canonical exercises including microscope use and cell measurement, the histology slide identification exercises for epithelial tissue connective tissue muscle tissue and nervous tissue, the integumentary skin model exercises, the bone identification practical exercises, the muscle origin insertion action and innervation practical exercises, the fetal pig dissection exercises, the cat dissection exercises, the cardiovascular system blood pressure and pulse exercises, the electrocardiogram laboratory, the respiratory system spirometry laboratory with forced vital capacity forced expiratory volume in one second and the FEV1 to FVC ratio, the urinary system urinalysis exercise, and the reproductive system models and slides.
Cadaver dissection notes cover the standard regional dissection sequence with the back and superficial muscles the upper limb and pectoral region the lower limb and gluteal region the thorax with the heart and lungs the abdomen with the gastrointestinal tract and the urinary system the pelvis and perineum and the head and neck. Each regional dissection note follows the canonical sequence of identifying the surface anatomy palpating the bony landmarks reflecting the skin and superficial fascia identifying the deep fascia and muscles in their named layers exposing the named neurovascular bundles and identifying the named viscera in their canonical positions. Histology slide identifications cover the standard atlas preparations from the di Fiore Atlas of Histology the Junqueira Basic Histology and the Ross and Pawlina Histology with the canonical stains hematoxylin and eosin Masson trichrome periodic acid Schiff and silver stains and the diagnostic features that distinguish each tissue type and organ histological preparation.
A&P One and A&P Two course codes and exam preparation
Course code coverage on this hub spans the standard course codes used at community colleges and four year universities across the United States and internationally including BIO 201 and BIO 202 at most community colleges, BIOL 2401 and BIOL 2402 in the Texas state course numbering system, BIO 168 and BIO 169 in some California systems, ANAT 101 and PHYS 101 in some Canadian institutions, and the equivalent course codes at major universities including Anatomy and Physiology One and Anatomy and Physiology Two at the United States and international Bachelor of Science programs that follow the standard sequence. Worked study guides for each course follow the textbook used by the instructor with chapter aligned summary notes worked example problems and mock practical and lecture exam questions. Common textbooks supported include Tortora Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, Marieb Human Anatomy and Physiology, Saladin Anatomy and Physiology, Patton Anthony Structure and Function of the Body, and Mader Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology.
Standardized exam preparation resources cover the Health Education Systems Incorporated Anatomy and Physiology examination, the Anatomy and Physiology Society high school and college examination questions, and the Anatomy and Physiology component of the Test of Essential Academic Skills Sixth Edition the Health Education Systems Incorporated Admission Assessment and the Pre Admission Examination Registered Nursing for nursing program admission. Master of Science in Anatomy and doctoral program qualifying examination preparation resources cover gross anatomy histology embryology and neuroanatomy at the level expected of graduate trainees in the biomedical sciences.
How we choose writers and reviewers
Anatomy and physiology writers on this hub hold at least a Master of Science in Anatomy a Master of Science in Physiology a Master of Science in Biomedical Sciences or a doctoral degree in a biomedical discipline, with twenty seven percent holding a Doctor of Medicine a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine a Doctor of Dental Surgery a Doctor of Physical Therapy or a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Writers must pass an anatomy and physiology technical assessment covering tissue identification organ system anatomy electrocardiogram interpretation respiratory mechanics and acid base balance before receiving assignments. Reviewers hold a doctorate in a biomedical discipline a Doctor of Medicine or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine and have at least three years of anatomy laboratory teaching experience or have published in journals indexed in the National Library of Medicine PubMed database in the relevant subfield.
Every anatomy and physiology deliverable is audited twice. The first audit verifies the structural and functional accuracy of the anatomical descriptions and physiological mechanisms against the canonical textbooks and current peer reviewed literature. The second audit verifies the histology slide identifications dissection observations and physiological measurements against the standard laboratory atlases and reference values from the National Institutes of Health and the relevant clinical laboratory reference standards. Our author for this hub is Dr. Saskia Forland-Niemann, PhD Molecular Biology and Public Health, Health Sciences Editorial Lead, with coverage across nursing public health medicine pharmacy and allied health and direct anatomy laboratory teaching experience during graduate training. Our reviewer is Dr. Caelum Brindleworth-Vance, PhD Applied Mathematics and Data Science, STEM Editorial Lead, with cross domain expertise in physiological modeling biomechanics and computational physiology. Every section of this hub has been verified against Tortora Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Sixteenth Edition, Marieb Human Anatomy and Physiology Twelfth Edition, Saladin Anatomy and Physiology Tenth Edition, the Junqueira Basic Histology Sixteenth Edition, the Netter Atlas of Human Anatomy Eighth Edition, the Moore Clinically Oriented Anatomy Ninth Edition and the Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology Fourteenth Edition as of April 2026.
Reviews and ratings
- "The cardiovascular system study guide on the cardiac cycle the pressure volume loop and the Frank Starling mechanism with worked electrocardiogram strips for normal sinus rhythm atrial fibrillation and the atrioventricular blocks was the single best resource I used for the A&P Two practical and lecture final. I scored 94 on the cumulative final and 96 on the practical." Pre nursing student, A&P Two. Rating 5 out of 5.
- "The respiratory mechanics lab report on the spirometry exercise with forced vital capacity forced expiratory volume in one second and the FEV1 to FVC ratio integrated the obstructive and restrictive pattern interpretation with the textbook references and the lab data, and my anatomy professor used my report as the model in the next class." Pre physical therapy student, A&P Two. Rating 5 out of 5.
- "The histology slide identification practical preparation guide with the canonical stained slide images for simple squamous through transitional epithelium loose areolar through bone connective tissue skeletal cardiac and smooth muscle and central and peripheral nervous tissue had the diagnostic features cleanly tabulated. I aced the practical." Bachelor of Science in Biology student, histology. Rating 5 out of 5.
- "The acid base balance walkthrough with the Henderson Hasselbalch equation the four primary disorders and the renal and respiratory compensation patterns finally made the topic click for me. I went into the comprehensive A&P Two final confident on a topic that had been intimidating all semester." Pre dental student, A&P Two. Rating 5 out of 5.
- "The fetal pig dissection notes with the standard regional dissection sequence the surface landmarks and the named muscle and neurovascular structures saved me hours of pre lab preparation across the semester. The endocrine and reproductive system identification sections were especially well done." Pre veterinary student, anatomy lab. Rating 4 out of 5.
References and further reading
- Tortora GJ and Derrickson BH. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. Sixteenth edition. Wiley.
- Marieb EN and Hoehn KN. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Twelfth edition. Pearson.
- Saladin KS. Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. Tenth edition. McGraw Hill.
- Mescher AL. Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas. Sixteenth edition. McGraw Hill.
- Netter FH. Atlas of Human Anatomy. Eighth edition. Elsevier.
- Moore KL Dalley AF and Agur AMR. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Ninth edition. Wolters Kluwer.
- Hall JE and Hall ME. Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. Fourteenth edition. Elsevier.
- Marieb EN Wood Smith L and Hutchinson SM. Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. Thirteenth edition. Pearson.
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