The Cellular Level of Organization
Describe the functions of at least 4 different cytoplasmic organelles?
The Golgi apparatus: Chemical alterations may occur when secretory proteins pass through the Golgi apparatus, which is responsible for packaging, modification, and transport proteins and lipids into vesicles. Between the "cis" and "trans" faces of the Golgi apparatus, there are three major compartments. Biochemically, these faces are separate, and each section has a distinct enzyme composition. The membranes on the cis face are often thinner than those on the other sides. Although some single-celled organisms have as many as 60 cisternae, the Golgi apparatus is made up of four to eight cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is sustained by cytoplasmic microtubules, which hold the cisternae together.
Ribosomes: Amino acids are converted into protein by ribosomes, and the resulting proteins are critical for cellular and organismal health. The primary job of ribosomes is to bring amino acids together to produce certain proteins, which are necessary for the cell’s operations to be completed. Protein is required for a range of cell functions, including chemical process guidance and damage repair. Ribosomes are still in the cytoplasm or connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Lysosomes: Digest and eliminate waste from cells since they can destroy invasive bacteria and viruses. Nutrient sensing, storage, and retrieval are all a part of their job. Lysosomes are highly active organelles that can fuse and fission with other organelles as well as the plasma membrane. Secretory lysosomes are a type of lysosome found in higher eukaryotes and are involved in pigmentation, coagulation, wound repair, and immune activities.
Ribosomes which is responsible for proteins synthesis. Amino acids are converted into protein by ribosomes, and the resulting proteins are critical for cellular and organismal health (Darling et al. 2018). Ribosomes are still in the cytoplasm or connected to the endoplasmic reticulum. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes, which are specialized cell organelles. For the creation of proteins, every live cell requires ribosomes.
This cell organelle also decodes the information conveyed by the nucleotide sequence of a messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). They use the acceptor site to enter the ribosome and transfer amino acid containing RNAs.
Mitochondrion: Small molecules can freely pass through the outer mitochondrial membrane, which also contains specific channels for carrying big molecules. The inner membrane, on the other hand, is much less permeable, enabling only extremely small molecules to pass through into the gel-like matrix that makes up the center mass of the organelle. The mitochondrial genome’s deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and enzymes from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle), which converts nutrients into by-products that the mitochondrion can use for energy production, are found in the matrix.
What is the difference between Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic solutions?
Hypotonic solutions are used when a cell is exhausted, and fluids must be restored intracellularly. When a patient develops diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperosmolar hyperglycemia, this happens. In a hypotonic fluid, the concentration of solutes is lower than inside the cell. A hypotonic solution contains a lower concentration of solutes than the others.
Hypertonic solutions are usually used with extreme caution. Because of the rapidly developing side effects of pulmonary edema/fluid overload, they are more likely to be given in the ICU. Additionally, because hypertonic solutions are vesicant on the veins and might cause infiltration, hypertonic solutions should be administered through a central line.
The concentration of dissolved particles such as electrolytes and salt in a hypertonic solution is higher than inside the cell.
A cell is in balance with its surroundings in an isotonic solution, so the concentrations of solutions within and outside are equal. Isotonic solutions have an electrolyte balance like plasma in the bloodstream. The patient’s fluid volume is increased without creating a fluid shift when an isotonic solution is given. When a patient has lost fluid volume due to blood loss, trauma, or dehydration from excessive nausea/vomiting or diarrhea, these fluids are helpful.
How are free radicals formed in the body?
Free radicals are highly reactive and unstable molecules created naturally in the body because of metabolism (oxidation) or because of exposure to toxins in the environment such as tobacco smoke and UV light. Unstable free radicals develop when oxygen molecules split into single atoms with unpaired electrons, looking for other atoms or molecules to link with. If this pattern persists, oxidative stress develops. Oxidative stress damages cells in the body, resulting in a variety of diseases and aging symptoms including wrinkles. In the body, oxygen breaks down into single atoms with unpaired electrons. Because electrons prefer to be in pairs, these atoms, known as free radicals, scour the body for other electrons to form a pair. Cells, proteins, and DNA are all harmed because of this. Cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and a variety of other diseases are all linked to free radicals. They could also be linked to aging, which is defined as the accumulation of free-radical damage over time.
References
Darling, A. L., Liu, Y., Oldfield, C. J., & Uversky, V. N. (2018). Intrinsically disordered proteome of human membrane‐less organelles. Proteomics, 18(5-6), 1700193.
Zhang, R., Qin, X., Kong, F., Chen, P., & Pan, G. (2019). Improving cellular uptake of therapeutic entities through interaction with components of cell membrane. Drug Delivery, 26(1), 328-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/10717544.2019.1582730
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