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There have been several classic experiments to study and describe classical conditioning; one of the more famous is the Little Albert experiment. Over the years, the experiment has lost some of its validity due to numerous interpretations by several introductory psychology textbooks. It is, therefore, beneficial to go back to the original (or primary) source and read what the authors of the experiment themselves had to say. Read the article and answer the following questions: In the study, what are unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)? Explain the concept of generalization in regards to Watson and Rayner’s ability to condition Albert to react to different stimuli such as masks, other animals, and a fur coat? Using examples from the study, explain the concept of extinction. Make sure you cite the article (see above for reference) you read as well as the textbook (used to explain classical conditioning). included is the article
Conditioned Emotional ReactionsJohn B. Watson and Rosalie Raynerin recent literature various speculations have been enteredinto concerning the possibility of conditioningvarious types of emotional response, but direct experimentalevidence in support of such a view has been lacking.If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan (“EmotionalReactions and Psychological Experimentation,”American Journal of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp.163-174) to the effect that in infancy the original emotionalreaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed offear, rage and love, then there must be some simple methodby means of which the range of stimuli which can call outthese emotions and their compounds is greatly increased.Otherwise, complexity in adult response could not be accountedfor. These authors without adequate experimentalevidence advanced the view that this range was increasedby means of conditioned reflex factors. It was suggestedthere that the early home life of the child furnishes alaboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotionalresponses. The present authors have recently put the wholematter to an experimental test.Experimental work has been done so far on only onechild, Albert B. This infant was reared almost from birth ina hospital environment; his mother was a wet nurse in theHarriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. Albert’s life wasnormal: he was healthy from birth and one of the bestdeveloped youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighingtwenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was onthe whole stolid and unemotional. His stability was one ofthe principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test.We felt that we could do him relatively little harm bycarrying out such experiments as those outlined below.At approximately nine months of age we ran himthrough the emotional tests that have become a part of ourregular routine in determining whether fear reactions canbe called out by other stimuli than sharp noises and thesudden removal of support. Tests of this type have beendescribed by the senior author in another place (“Psychologyfrom the Standpoint of a Behaviorist,” p. 202). In brief,the infant was confronted suddenly and for the first timesuccessively with a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey,with masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burningnewspapers, etc. A permanent record of Albert’s reactionsto these objects and situations has been preserved in amotion picture study. Manipulation was the most usualreaction called out. At no time did this infant ever show fearin any situation. These experimental records were confirmedby the casual observations of the mother and hospitalattendants. No one had ever seen him in a state of fearand rage. The infant practically never cried.Up to approximately nine months of age we had nottested him with loud sounds. The test to determine whethera fear reaction could be called out by a loud sound wasmade when he was eight months, twenty-six days of age.The sound was that made by striking a hammer upon asuspended steel bar four feet in length and three-fourths ofan inch in diameter. The laboratory notes are as follows:One of the two experimenters caused the child to turn its head andfixate her moving hand; the other,-stationed back of the child,struck the steel bar a sharp blow. The child started violently, hisbreathing was checked and the arms were raised in a characteristicmanner. On the second stimulation the same thing occurred, andin addition the lips began to pucker and tremble. On the thirdstimulation the child broke into a sudden crying fit. This is the firsttime an emotional situation in the laboratory has produced anyfear or even crying in Albert.We had expected just these results on account of ourwork with other infants brought up under similar conditions.It is worth while to call attention to the fact thatremoval of support (dropping and jerking the blanket uponwhich the infant was lying) was tried exhaustively uponthis infant on the same occasion. It was not effective inproducing the fear response. This stimulus is effective inyounger children. At what age such stimuli lose theirpotency in producing fear is not known. Nor is it knownwhether less placid children ever lose their fear of them.This probably depends upon the training the child gets. It iswell known that children eagerly run to be tossed into theair and caught. On the other hand it is equally well knownthat in the adult fear responses are called out quite clearlyby the sudden removal of support, if the individual iswalking across a bridge, walking out upon a beam, etc.There is a wide field of study here which is aside from ourpresent point.The sound stimulus, thus, at nine months of age, givesus the means of testing several important factors. I. Can wecondition fear of an animal, e.g., a white rat, by visuallypresenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar? II. Ifsuch a conditioned emotional response can be established,will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects?III. What is the effect of time upon such conditionedemotional responses? IV. If after a reasonable period suchemotional responses have not died out, what laboratorymethods can be devised for their removal?Editor’s note. This article is a reprint of “Conditioned Emotional Reactions,”by i. B. Watson and R. Rayner, 1920, Journal of ExperimentalPsychology, 3, pp. 1-14.March 2000 • American PsychologistIn the public domainVol. 55, No. 3, 313-317 DOI: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.3.313313I. The establishment of conditioned emotional responses.At first there was considerable hesitation upon ourpart in making the attempt to set up fear reactions experimentally.A certain responsibility attaches to such a procedure.We decided finally to make the attempt, comfortingourselves by the reflection that such attachments wouldarise anyway as soon as the child left the sheltered environmentof the nursery for the rough and tumble of thehome. We did not begin this work until Albert was elevenmonths, three days of age. Before attempting to set up aconditioned response we, as before, put him through all ofthe regular emotional tests. Not the slightest sign of a fearresponse was obtained in any situation.The steps taken to condition emotional response areshown in our laboratory notes.11 Months 3 Days
White rat suddenly taken from the basket and presented toAlbert. He began to reach for rat with left hand. Just as his handtouched the animal the bar was struck immediately behind hishead. The infant jumped violently and fell forward, burying hisface in the mattress. He did not cry, however.
Just as the right hand touched the rat the bar was againstruck. Again the infant jumped violently, fell forward and beganto whimper.In order not to disturb the child too seriously no further testswere given for one week.11 Months 10 Days
Rat presented suddenly without sound. There was steadyfixation but no tendency at first to reach for it. The rat was thenplaced nearer, whereupon tentative reaching movements beganwith the right hand. When the rat nosed the infant’s left hand, thehand was immediately withdrawn. He started to reach for the headof the animal with the forefinger of the left hand, but withdrew itsuddenly before contact. It is thus seen that the two joint stimulationsgiven the previous week were not without effect. He wastested with his blocks immediately afterwards to see if they sharedin the process of conditioning. He began immediately to pickthem up, dropping them, pounding them, etc. In the remainder ofthe tests the blocks were given frequently to quiet him and to testhis general emotional state. They were always removed from sightwhen the process of conditioning was under way.
Joint stimulation with rat and sound. Started, then fellover immediately to right side. No crying.
Joint stimulation. Fell to right side and rested upon hands,with head turned away from rat. No crying.
Joint stimulation. Same reaction.
Rat suddenly presented alone. Puckered face, whimperedand withdrew body sharply to the left.
Joint stimulation. Fell over immediately to right side andbegan to whimper.
Joint stimulation. Started violently and cried, but did notfall over.
Rat alone. The instant the rat was shown the baby beganto cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over onleft side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away sorapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edgeof the table.This was as convincing a case of a completely conditionedfear response as could have been theoretically pictured.In all seven joint stimulations were given to bringabout the complete reaction. It is not unlikely had the soundbeen of greater intensity or of a more complex clangcharacter that the number of joint stimulations might havebeen materially reduced. Experiments designed to definethe nature of the sounds that will serve best as emotionalstimuli are under way.II. When a conditioned emotional response has beenestablished for one object, is there a transfer? Five dayslater Albert was again brought back into the laboratory andtested as follows:11 Months 15 Days
Tested first with blocks. He reached readily for them,playing with them as usual. This shows that there has been nogeneral transfer to the room, table, blocks, etc.
Rat alone. Whimpered immediately, withdrew right handand turned head and trunk away.
Blocks again offered. Played readily with them, smilingand gurgling.
Rat alone. Leaned over to the left side as far away fromthe rat as possible, then fell over, getting up on all fours andscurrying away as rapidly as possible.
Blocks again offered. Reached immediately for them,smiling and laughing as before.The above preliminary test shows that the conditionedresponse to the rat had carried over completely for the fivedays in which no tests were given. The question as towhether or not there is a transfer was next taken up.
Rabbit alone. The rabbit was suddenly placed on themattress in front of him. The reaction was pronounced. Negativeresponses began at once. He leaned as far away from the animalas possible, whimpered, then burst into tears. When the rabbit wasplaced in contact with him he buried his face in the mattress, thengot up on all fours and crawled away, crying as he went. This wasa most convincing test.
The blocks were next given him, after an interval. Heplayed with them as before. It was observed by four people thathe played far more energetically with them than ever before. Theblocks were raised high over his head and slammed down with agreat deal of force.
Dog alone. The dog did not produce as violent a reactionas the rabbit. The moment fixation occurred the child shrank backand as the animal came nearer he attempted to get on all fours butdid not cry at first. As soon as the dog passed out of his range ofvision he became quiet. The dog was then made to approach theinfant’s head (he was lying down at the moment). Albert straightenedup immediately, fell over to the opposite side and turned hishead away. He then began to cry.
The blocks were again presented. He began immediatelyto play with them.
Fur coat (seal). Withdrew immediately to the left sideand began to fret. Coat put close to him on the left side, he turnedimmediately, began to cry and tried to crawl away on all fours.
Cotton wool. The wool was presented in a paper package.At the end the cotton was not covered by the paper. It wasplaced first on his feet. He kicked it away but did not touch it withhis hands. When his hand was laid on the wool he immediatelywithdrew it but did not show the shock that the animals or fur coatproduced in him. He then began to play with the paper, avoidingcontact with the wool itself. He finally, under the impulse of themanipulative instinct, lost some of his negativism to the wool.
Just in play W. put his head down to see if Albert wouldplay with his hair. Albert was completely negative. Two other314 March 2000 • American Psychologistobservers did the same thing. He began immediately to play withtheir hair. W. then brought the Santa Claus mask and presented itto Albert. He was again pronouncedly negative.11 Months 20 Days
Blocks alone. Played with them as usual.
Rat alone. Withdrawal of the whole body, bending over tothe left side, no crying. Fixation and following with eyes. Theresponse was much less marked than on first presentation theprevious week. It was thought best to freshen up the reaction byanother joint stimulation.
Just as the rat was placed on his hand the rod was struck.Reaction violent.
Rat alone. Fell over at once to left side. Reaction practicallyas strong as on former occasion but no crying.
Rat alone. Fell over to left side, got up on all fours andstarted to crawl away. On this occasion there was no crying, butstrange to say, as he started away he began to gurgle and coo,even while leaning far over to the left side to avoid the rat.
Rabbit alone. Leaned over to left side as far as possible.Did not fall over. Began to whimper but reaction not so violent ason former occasions.
Blocks again offered. He reached for them immediatelyand began to play.All of the tests so far discussed were carried out upona table supplied with a mattress, located in a small, welllighteddark-room. We wished to test next whether conditionedfear responses so set up would appear if the situationwere markedly altered. We thought it best before makingthis test to freshen the reaction both to the rabbit and to thedog by showing them at the moment the steel bar wasstruck. It will be recalled that this was the first time anyeffort had been made to directly condition response to thedog and rabbit. The experimental notes are as follows:
The rabbit at first was given alone. The reaction wasexactly as given in test (6) above. When the rabbit was left onAlbert’s knees for a long time he began tentatively to reach outand manipulate its fur with forefingers. While doing this the steelrod was struck. A violent fear reaction resulted.
Rabbit alone. Reaction wholly similar to that on trial (6)above.
Rabbit alone. Started immediately to whimper, holdinghands far up, but did not cry. Conflicting tendency to manipulatevery evident.
Dog alone. Began to whimper, shaking head from side toside, holding hands as far away from the animal as possible.
Dog and sound. The rod was struck just as the animaltouched him. A violent negative reaction appeared. He began towhimper, turned to one side, fell over and started to get up on allfours.
Blocks. Played with them immediately and readily.On this same day and immediately after the aboveexperiment Albert was taken into the large well-lightedlecture room belonging to the laboratory. He was placed ona table in the center of the room immediately under theskylight. Four people were present. The situation was thusvery different from that which obtained in the small darkroom.
Rat alone. No sudden fear reaction appeared at first. Thehands, however, were held up and away from the animal. Nopositive manipulatory reactions appeared.
Rabbit alone. Fear reaction slight. Turned to left and keptface away from the animal but the reaction was never pronounced.
Dog alone. Turned away but did not fall over. Cried.Hands moved as far away from the animal as possible. Whimperedas long as the dog was present.
Rat alone. Slight negative reaction.
Rat and sound. It was thought best to freshen the reactionto the rat. The sound was given just as the rat was presented.Albert jumped violently but did not cry.
Rat alone. At first he did not show any negative reaction.When rat was placed nearer he began to show negative reactionby drawing back his body, raising his hands, whimpering, etc.
Blocks. Played with them immediately.
Rat alone. Pronounced withdrawal of body andwhimpering.
Blocks. Played with them as before.
Rabbit alone. Pronounced reaction. Whimpered witharms held high, fell over backward and had to be caught.
Dog alone. At first the dog did not produce the pronouncedreaction. The hands were held high over the head,breathing was checked, but there was no crying. Just at thismoment the dog, which had not barked before, barked three timesloudly when only about six inches from the baby’s face. Albertimmediately fell over and broke into a wail that continued untilthe dog was removed. The sudden barking of the hitherto quietdog produced a marked fear response in the adult observers!From the above results it would seem that emotionaltransfers do take place. Furthermore it would seem that thenumber of transfers resulting from an experimentally producedconditioned emotional reaction may be very large. Inour observations we had no means of testing the completenumber of transfers which may have resulted.III. The effect of time upon conditioned emotionalresponses. We have already shown that the conditionedemotional response will continue for a period of one week.It was desired to make the time test longer. In view of theimminence of Albert’s departure from the hospital wecould not make the interval longer than one month. Accordinglyno further emotional experimentation was enteredinto for thirty-one days after the above test. Duringthe month, however, Albert was brought weekly to thelaboratory for tests upon right and left-handedness, imitation,general development, etc. No emotional tests whateverwere given and during the whole month his regularnursery routine was maintained in the Harriet Lane Home.The notes on the test given at the end of this period are asfollows:1 Year 21 Days
Santa Claus mask. Withdrawal, gurgling, then slapped atit without touching. When his hand was forced to touch it, hewhimpered and cried. His hand was forced to touch it two moretimes. He whimpered and cried on both tests. He finally cried atthe mere visual stimulus of the mask.
Fur coat. Wrinkled his nose and withdrew both hands,drew back his whole body and began to whimper as the coat wasput nearer. Again there was the strife between withdrawal and thetendency to manipulate. Reached tentatively with left hand butdrew back before contact had been made. In moving his body toone side his hand accidently touched the coat. He began to cry atonce, nodding his head in a very peculiar manner (this reactionwas an entirely new one). Both hands were withdrawn as far asMarch 2000 • American Psychologist 315possible from the coat. The coat was then laid on his lap and hecontinued nodding his head and whimpering, withdrawing hisbody as far as possible, pushing the while at the coat with his feetbut never touching it with his hands.
Fur coat. The coat was taken out of his sight and presentedagain at the end of a minute. He began immediately to fret,withdrawing his body and nodding his head as before.
Blocks. He began to play with them as usual.
The rat. He allowed the rat to crawl towards him withoutwithdrawing. He sat very still and fixated it intently. Rat thentouched his hand. Albert withdrew it immediately, then leanedback as far as possible but did not cry. When the rat was placedon his arm he withdrew his body and began to fret, nodding hishead. The rat was then allowed to crawl against his chest. He firstbegan to fret and then covered his eyes with both hands.
Blocks. Reaction normal.
The rabbit. The animal was placed directly in front ofhim. It was very quiet. Albert showed no avoiding reactions atfirst. After a few seconds he puckered up his face, began to nodhis head and to look intently at the experimenter. He next beganto push the rabbit away with his feet, withdrawing his body at thesame time. Then as the rabbit came nearer he began pulling hisfeet away, nodding his head, and wailing “da da.” After about aminute he reached out tentatively and slowly and touched therabbit’s ear with his right hand, finally manipulating it. The rabbitwas again placed in his lap. Again he began to fret and withdrewhis hands. He reached out tentatively with his left hand andtouched the animal, shuddered and withdrew the whole body. Theexperimenter then took hold of his left hand and laid it on therabbit’s back. Albert immediately withdrew his hand and began tosuck his thumb. Again the rabbit was laid in his lap. He began tocry, covering his face with both hands.
Dog. The dog was very active. Albert fixated it intenselyfor a few seconds, sitting very still. He began to cry but did notfall over backwards as on his last contact with the dog. When thedog was pushed closer to him he at first sat motionless, then beganto cry, putting both hands over his face.These experiments would seem to show conclusivelythat directly conditioned emotional responses as well asthose conditioned by transfer persist, although with a certainloss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer periodthan one month. Our view is that they persist and modifypersonality throughout life. It should be recalled again thatAlbert was of an extremely phlegmatic type. Had he beenemotionally unstable probably both the directly conditionedresponse and those transferred would have persistedthroughout the month unchanged in form.IV. “Detachment” or removal of conditioned emotionalresponses. Unfortunately Albert was taken from thehospital the day the above tests were made. Hence theopportunity of building up an experimental technique bymeans of which we could remove the conditioned emotionalresponses was denied us. Our own view, expressedabove, which is possibly not very well grounded, is thatthese responses in the home environment are likely topersist indefinitely, unless an accidental method for removingthem is hit upon. The importance of establishing somemethod must be apparent to all. Had the opportunity beenat hand we should have tried out several methods, some ofwhich we may mention. (1) Constantly confronting thechild with those stimuli which called out the responses inthe hopes that habituation would come in corresponding to“fatigue” of reflex when differential reactions are to be setup. (2) By trying to “recondition” by showing objectscalling out fear responses (vsual [sic]) and simultaneouslystimulating the erogenous zones (tactual). We should tryfirst the lips, then the nipples and as a final resort the sexorgans. (3) By trying to “recondition” by feeding the subjectcandy or other food just as the animal is shown. Thismethod calls for the food control of the subject. (4) Bybuilding up “constructive” activities around the object byimitation and by putting the hand through the motions ofmanipulation. At this age imitation of overt motor activityis strong, as our present but unpublished experimentationhas shown.Incidental Observations(a) Thumb sucking as a compensatory device for blockingfear and noxious stimuli. During the course of these experiments,especially in the final test, it was noticed thatwhenever Albert was on the verge of tears or emotionallyupset generally he would continually thrust his thumb intohis mouth. The moment the hand reached the mouth hebecame impervious to the stimuli producing fear. Againand again while the motion pictures were being made at theend of the thirty-day rest period, we had to remove thethumb from his mouth before the conditioned responsecould be obtained. This method of blocking noxious andemotional stimuli (fear and rage) through erogenous stimulationseems to persist from birth onward. Very often inour experiments upon the work adders with infants underten days of age the same reaction appeared. When at workupon the adders both of the infants arms are under slightrestraint. Often rage appears. They begin to cry, thrashingtheir arms and legs about. If the finger gets into the mouthcrying ceases at once. The organism thus apparently frombirth, when under the influence of love stimuli is blocked toall others.1 This resort to sex stimulation when under theinfluence of noxious and emotional situations, or when theindividual is restless and idle, persists throughout adolescentand adult life. Albert, at any rate, did not resort tothumb sucking except in the presence of such stimuli.Thumb sucking could immediately be checked by offeringhim his blocks. These invariably called out active manipulationinstincts. It is worth while here to call attention tothe fact that Freud’s conception of the stimulation of erogenouszones as being the expression of an original “pleasure”seeking principle may be turned about and possiblybetter described as a compensatory (and often conditioned)device for the blockage of noxious and fear and rageproducing stimuli.(b) Equal primacy of fear, love and possibly rage.While in general the results of our experiment offer no1 The stimulus to love in infants according to our view is stroking ofthe skin, lips, nipples and sex organs, patting and rocking, picking up, etc.Patting and rocking (when not conditioned) are probably equivalent toactual stimulation of the sex organs. In adults of course, as every loverknows, vision, audition and olfaction soon become conditioned by jointstimulation with contact and kinssthetic stimuli.316 March 2000 • American Psychologistparticular points of conflict with Freudian concepts, onefact out of harmony with them should be emphasized.According to proper Freudians sex (or in our terminology,love) is the principal emotion in which conditioned responsesarise which later limit and distort personality. Wewish to take sharp issue with this view on the basis of theexperimental evidence we have gathered. Fear is as primala factor as love in influencing personality. Fear does notgather its potency in any derived manner from love. Itbelongs to the original and inherited nature of man. Probablythe same may be true of rage although at present weare not so sure of this.The Freudians twenty years from now, unless their hypotheseschange, when they come to analyze Albert’s fear ofa seal skin coat—assuming that he comes to analysis at thatage—will probably tease from him the recital of a dreamwhich upon their analysis will show that Albert at three yearsof age attempted to play with the pubic hair of the mother andwas scolded violently for it. (We are by no means denying thatthis might in some other case condition it). If the analyst hassufficiently prepared Albert to accept such a dream whenfound as an explanation of his avoiding tendencies, and if theanalyst has the authority and personality to put it over, Albeitmay be fully convinced that the dream was a true revealer ofthe factors which brought about the fear.It is probable that many of the phobias in psychopathologyare true conditioned emotional reactions either ofthe direct or the transferred type. One may possibly have tobelieve that such persistence of early conditioned responseswill be found only in persons who are constitutionallyinferior. Our argument is meant to be constructive. Emotionaldisturbances in adults cannot be traced back to sexalone. They must be retraced along at least three collaterallines—to conditioned and transferred responses set up ininfancy and early youth in all three of the fundamentalhuman emotions.March 2000 • American Psychologist 317
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