Communication networks

Chapter 12/13

A second characteristic of organizational communication is that it occurs in communication networks, which are formal and informal links between members of organizations

Extending the idea of culture to organizations, communication scholars focus on organizational culture, which consists of values, behaviors, practices, and forms of communication that are shared by members of an organization and that reflect an organization’s identity.

Rites are dramatic, planned sets of activities that bring together aspects of cultural ideology in a single event.

Rituals are forms of communication that occur regularly and that members of an organization perceive as familiar and routine parts of organizational life.

Organizational cultures are also represented through structural aspects of organizational life. As the name implies, structures organize relationships and interaction between members of an organization.

Policies are formal statements of practices that reflect and uphold the overall culture of an organization.

In a speech to entertain, the primary objective is to engage, interest, amuse, or please listeners. You might think that only accomplished comics and performers present speeches to entertain. Actually, many of us will be involved in speaking to entertain during our lives. You might be asked to give an after-dinner speech, present a toast at a friend’s wedding, or roast a colleague at a retirement party.

A speech to inform has the primary goal of increasing listeners’ understanding, awareness, or knowledge of some topic. For example, a speaker might want listeners to understand the rights guaranteed in the Bill of Rights or to make listeners aware of recycling programs. In both cases, the primary purpose is to enrich listeners’ knowledge, although each topic has persuasive implications.

A speech to persuade aims to influence attitudes, change practices, or alter beliefs. Rather than primarily an entertainer or teacher, the persuasive speaker is an advocate who argues for a cause, issue, policy, attitude, or action.

Credibility exists when listeners believe in a speaker and trust what the speaker says. Credibility is based on listeners’ perceptions of a speaker’s position, authority, knowledge (also called expertise), dynamism, and trustworthiness (also called character).

A speaker’s credibility is not necessarily static. Some speakers have high initial credibility, which is the expertise, dynamism, and character that listeners attribute to them before they begin to speak.

A speaker without much initial credibility may earn strong credibility in the process of presenting a speech. Speakers may gain derived credibility, which listeners grant as a result of how speakers communicate during presentations.

Terminal credibility is a cumulative combination of initial and derived credibility. Terminal credibility may be greater or less than initial credibility, depending on how effectively a speaker has communicated.

Evidence is material used to support claims, such as those made in a public speech.

statistics A form of evidence that uses numbers to summarize a great many individual cases or to demonstrate relationships between phenomena.

example A form of evidence in which a single instance is used to make a point, to dramatize an idea, or to personalize information. The four types of examples are undetailed, detailed, hypothetical, and anecdotal.

comparison A form of evidence associating two things that are similar or different in some important way or ways.

quotation A form of evidence that uses exact citations of others’ statements. Also called testimony.

visual aid A visual image, such as a chart, graph, photograph, or physical object, that reinforces ideas presented verbally or provides information.

The last aspect of organization that Harper needs to consider is transitions, which are words, phrases, and sentences that connect ideas in a speech.

As we have seen, dynamism is one dimension of a speaker’s credibility. Therefore, an engaging delivery is important. Oral style generally should be personal. Speakers may include personal stories and personal pronouns, referring to themselves as I rather than the speaker.

Four styles of delivery are generally recognized, and each is appropriate in certain contexts.

Impromptu delivery involves little or no preparation. It can be effective for speakers who know their material thoroughly. Many politicians speak in an impromptu fashion [“impromptu” not an adverb] when talking about their experience in public service and policies they advocate. Impromptu speaking generally is not advisable for novice speakers or for anyone who is not thoroughly familiar with a topic.

Probably the most commonly used presentational style is extemporaneous无 delivery. Extemporaneous speaking involves substantial preparation and practice, but it stops short of memorizing the exact words of a speech and relies on notes. Speakers conduct research, organize materials, and practice delivering their speeches, but they do not rehearse so much that the speeches sound canned. Attorneys, teachers, politicians, and others who engage in public speaking most often use an extemporaneous style of presentation because it allows them to prepare thoroughly and yet engage listeners when speaking.

Manuscript delivery, as the name implies, involves presenting a speech from a complete, written text. Manuscript style requires the speaker to write out the entire speech and to rely on the written document or a teleprompter projection when making the presentation. Few people can present manuscript speeches in an engaging, dynamic manner. However, manuscript delivery is appropriate, even advisable, in situations that call for precision. For instance, U.S. presidents generally use manuscripts for official presentations. In these circumstances, speakers cannot run the risk of errors or imprecise language.

An extension of the manuscript style of speaking is memorized delivery, in which a speaker commits an entire speech to memory and presents it without relying on a written text or notes. This style shares the primary disadvantage of manuscript speaking: the risk of a canned delivery that lacks dynamism and immediacy. In addition, the memorized style of delivery entails a second serious danger: forgetting. If a speaker is nervous, or if something happens to disrupt a presentation, the speaker may become rattled and forget all or part of the speech. Without the written text, he or she may be unable to get back on track.

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